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The Effects of Varying Dietary Fat on the Nutrient Intake in Male and Female Runners

Departments of Physical Therapy, Exercise & Nutrition Sciences and Physiology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York

Address reprint requests to: Dr. Peter J. Horvath, 15 Farber Hall, Nutrition Program, Department of Physical Therapy, Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214.

	ABSTRACT

TOP ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION MATERIALS AND METHODS RESULTS CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES

 
Objective: The present study examined the effects of varying dietary fat levels on nutrients in female and male endurance runners.

Methods: Three diets (low, medium and high fat) were designed for each subject using their food preferences and three-day food records. Each diet was eaten for 28 to 31 days. The diets were self-selected from seven-day sample menus. Twelve male and 13 female runners between 18 and 55 years of age who averaged 42 miles/week participated in the study. Daily food intakes, activity records and weekly palatability/hunger scales were completed.

Results: Dietary fat intakes, as a percent of total energy intake (%E), averaged 17%E, 31%E, and 44%E on the low, medium and high fat diets, respectively. Energy consumption was less than their estimated energy expenditure (EEE) on all diets. On the low fat diet, the female runners were consuming approximately 60% of their EEE. As dietary fat increased, the difference between calorie intake and estimated energy expenditure became less and the subjects were less hungry on the two higher fat diets. For all subjects, as energy intakes increased, so did carbohydrate intake. Therefore, carbohydrate intake was not different on the two lower fat diets. Irrespective of gender, calcium and zinc intakes, which were below 1989 RDAs, increased with increasing fat intakes, between the low and medium fat diets. Zinc intake was also higher on the highest fat diet. Essential fatty acid intakes for females on the low fat diet were less than 2.5%E. Half of the female runners ate less than the RDA of calcium and zinc on the low fat diet and Fe on the medium fat diet.

Conclusion: This study suggests that endurance runners may not be consuming enough calories on a low fat diet and that increasing dietary fat increased energy consumption. On the low fat diet, essential fatty acids and some minerals (especially zinc) may be too low. A low fat diet could compromise health and performance.

Key words: protein, vitamins, minerals, runners, dietary fat, diet, dietary carbohydrates

	INTRODUCTION

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Athletes are always looking for an edge on the competition. Altering training and diet are two ways used to enhance performance. Good nutritional status is vital for health and plays an important role in performance. Optimal nutrition can enhance performance and the recovery from training [1]. However, the information athletes base their diets on often comes from fad diets which are usually not nutritionally balanced. In addition, most athletes are concerned about their body weight as energy expenditure during running is partly based on body weight. Thus, some athletes attempt to be at or below their ideal weight by consuming much less energy than required for their activity level [2]. The inadequate energy intake of athletes not only affects the energy available for training, but may also compromise their intake of protein, vitamins and minerals [1].

Current dietary recommendations are based on a healthy but relatively inactive population [3,4]. Although these recommendations are designed to obtain optimal health, the increased demand on the body from exercise is not usually considered and may be greater during extensive training [1]. Carbohydrate intakes may need to be increased for athletes to supply immediate energy and to replenish muscle glycogen stores [5]. Recommended protein intakes for runners may be four times what is recommended for sedentary persons [6]. This would not be considered healthy for the average population because of the implications a high protein diet has for renal disease. However, in the case of athletes, these high protein levels may be needed to build or repair muscle and amino acid based substrates that are used during exercise [6]. Some researchers have suggested a higher recommendation for fat intakes which may be necessary for athletes’ increased energy expenditure [7], metabolic pathways that use fatty acids and to help in the utilization of nutrients absorbed or transported with fat.

The vitamin and mineral requirements of runners also may need to be increased because of their increased exercise metabolism. The loss of some nutrients with sweat may be substantial enough to increase their intake requirements [8,9].

Low food intakes may also play a part in the lower vitamin and mineral status of athletes [10]. Calcium, zinc and iron are minerals that are commonly reported to be low in athletes, especially females [8,11,12]. Intense training may lead to amenorrhea in females, which induces a greater need for calcium and iron [13]. Zinc is important in the function of many enzymes. Its role in the structural integrity of antioxidant enzyme systems may lead to an increased need for athletes who lose zinc in urine and sweat [14]. The increased oxidative stress of high intensity exercise increases the need for antioxidants such as vitamin E [15,16].

Given the different diet practices of athletes, many involving low fat intakes, we examined changes in energy, vitamin and mineral intake with different levels of dietary fat in runners. We hypothesized that increasing dietary fat would increase the variety of foods chosen and increase energy intakes, which in turn would improve protein, vitamin and mineral consumption required for athletic training and competition.

	MATERIALS AND METHODS

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Subjects
Healthy runners were recruited from the Greater Western New York running community. Thirteen hundred runners were sent a letter requesting their participation in this and other studies. Forty-five subjects who met all exclusion criteria were asked to participate in the study. Informed consent forms were signed by each subject after an explanation of the study. This project was approved by the University at Buffalo Institutional Review Board on Human Subjects and Experimentation. The subjects had to be healthy, nonsmokers, between 18 and 55 years of age and to run at least 35 miles per week. Pretests were done on thirty-nine of the volunteers. Twenty-eight subjects (14 females, 14 males) started the study. Three subjects would not follow the dietary regimen and were dropped from the study. Twenty-five of the subjects completed both the low fat and medium fat diets, while only 12 subjects increased their fat intake above 40% on the high fat diet. Therefore, comparisons were made with all 25 subjects between the low and the medium fat diet, while only the twelve subjects who completed the study were used for the comparison between the medium and the high fat diet. The physical characteristics of these twenty-five subjects are shown in Table 1.

Dietary and Activity Analysis
Subjects completed daily dietary records, daily activity and running records, and marked weekly food palatability and hunger scales for each different diet. The palatability and hunger scales consisted of two, unmarked 10 cm lines which were marked by the subject to rate the palatability of the diet and hunger during each diet. The diets were analyzed using the Nutritionist IV program for each day (First Databank, San Bruno, CA). All the daily results were then combined for diet totals. All foods or dietary supplements that were not in the data bank were added along with special recipes. Food labels were provided by the subjects. Ninety-four percent of all the possible records were collected and analyzed. The palatability and hunger scales were measured and recorded as cm.

The subjects filled out activity records, dividing each day into work, leisure and sleep. During working hours, subjects recorded the time spent sitting, standing, walking and lifting heavy weights. During leisure time, subjects divided their activities into light, moderate, heavy and extremely heavy. Body weight and body composition were measured at the start of the study and at the end of each diet. Body weight was measured on a digital scale and body composition by underwater weighing [17]. The subject’s estimated energy expenditure was calculated using their body weight, surface area and standard estimates of energy cost for the above activities [4].

Statistics
All of the statistical analyses were performed using NCSS version 6.0 (Kaysville, UT). The low fat and medium fat diets were analyzed with an n=25 (female, n=13; male, n=12). The medium and high fat diets were analyzed with an n=12 (female, n=6; male, n=6). The macronutrient intake data was analyzed by ANOVA (analysis of variance using general linear models, GLM) with repeated measures with gender and diet as main factors. The data on palability, hunger, mineral and vitamin intakes were often not normally distributed (based on the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Omnibus test), so nonparametric procedures were used. Comparisons between gender on each diet were done using the Mann-Whitney U test. Comparisons between diets were performed using the Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test for paired samples. Values are presented as either the mean±standard error of the mean (SEM) for macronutrients or median with the 25 and 75 percentiles for the minerals and vitamin intakes since they were not normally distributed. Differences were considered significant at p<0.05.

	RESULTS

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Physical Characteristics
The age, weight and percent body fat of the runners who completed all three diets of the study were not different from those who did not complete the high fat diet. The subjects who were used for the comparisons between the low and medium fat diets were not different in any of the physical characteristics, nor were those who were used for the medium and high fat diets. Body weight and percent body fat did not change significantly with the increase in dietary fat (Table 1). Exercise training, measured as miles run per week, did not change over the course of the study.

Macronutrients
Caloric intakes were higher on the medium fat diet compared to the low fat diet, but not compared to the high fat diet (Table 2 a and b). Females did not consume fewer calories per kg per day than the males on any diet. Estimated Energy Expenditure (EEE) was higher for the males on the medium fat diet compared to the low and on the high compared to the medium fat diet. EEE did not change for females over the different diets. For females, the difference between EEE and dietary energy intakes decreased as fat level increased. For males, the greatest difference between EEE and energy intakes was on the low fat diet, and the least difference was on the medium fat diet. The increase in the difference on the high fat diet between EEE and dietary intake estimates for males was due to an increase in reported activity.

Females ate fewer carbohydrates than males (as g/d), but when corrected for body weight, intake was not different (Tables 2a and b). Females ate a higher percentage of calories from carbohydrates, and this percent decreased for both genders as dietary fat increased. Total dietary fiber intakes were lower when subjects went from the medium to high fat diet. Protein as a percent of energy intake was lower on the medium fat compared to the low fat diet for both genders, due to an increase in total energy. The average fat intake was 17%E and 31%E for all subjects on the low and medium fat diets and 44%E for the twelve subjects on the high fat diet.

The percentages of fat from saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty acids on the low fat diet were the same for the men and women on all diets (Table 3). As subjects went to the medium fat diet, the percent of saturated fatty acids increased by 3%E while polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased by about 5%E. Essential fatty acid intakes (estimated from linoleic acid and linolenic acid, which had the most complete data) increased when subjects increased dietary fat intakes from 2% to 4% to nearly 6%E. Females consumed less cholesterol than males (40%). For all subjects, cholesterol intakes were 28% lower on the low fat diet compared to the medium fat diet and 29% lower on the medium fat diet compared to the high fat diet.

	DISCUSSION

Many, if not most, athletes participating in sports where leanness is particularly important, such as dancers, runners and gymnasts, are often in energy deficits [21,22]. Our subjects’ caloric intake compared to their EEE was the lowest on the low fat diet; this is similar to the data reported in other studies on similar athletes [18,21]. Research has shown that the estimated energy expenditure of male endurance athletes is usually higher than the energy consumed [2]. Dietary energy intakes on the medium and high fat diets were closer to our subjects’ EEE than on the low fat diet. EEE increased in males on the medium and high fat diets in excess of the increase in caloric intakes. The EEE of the female runners in this study was also higher than their actual energy intake. Mulligan et al. [23] and Tuschl et al. [24] also found that female runners consume less energy than their EEE.

In spite of the increase in total calories and calories from fat in the present study, body weight and the percent of body fat did not increase across the three diets. It has been shown that basal metabolic rate may decrease as much as 15% within two weeks of caloric restriction [25]. Thompson et al. [2] studied the discrepancy between energy intake and expenditure and determined that the total energy expenditure was not affected by the lower energy intake because the daily energy expenditure was overestimated in athletes.

The energy intake and expenditure data must be considered in light of the fact that dietary food records may have been underreported [26] due to inaccuracies in measuring food, reporting frequent food intakes on the low fat diet and/or infrequent reporting [27]. In addition, activity records and/or the caloric cost of specific activities may have been overestimated, as these trained runners may be more efficient at running than would be indicated by the value used. The subjects in the present study completed daily records and were encouraged to complete them immediately after meals or exercise to minimize potential errors. The runners in this study were accustomed to keeping daily eating and training records, and we propose that the errors were minimized and most likely were consistent across the three diets.

Protein Intake:
Protein intakes for all the subjects throughout this study were adequate based on the 1989 RDA [4]. Runners who undergo net protein catabolism through strenuous exercise may need to increase protein intakes above the recommendation for the average population of 0.8 g/kg of body weight per day [6,28,29]. Protein consumption by the women runners was highest on the high fat diet, but this did not affect the percentage of total calories from protein, which may be an effect of slightly higher caloric intakes. Males maintained a fairly uniform protein intake throughout the study. The protein intakes were 1.2 g/d/kg or greater on all diets, except with women on the low fat diet, so the protein consumption for both females and males was above the recommendation for athletes [6,28,29].

Fat Intake:
The National Research Council suggests limiting dietary intakes of fat in individuals to less than 30% of total calories [30]. This recommendation is based primarily on minimizing cardiovascular risk factors. Low fat intakes have been shown to decrease the ratio of high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol to low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol [31]. This recommendation is not specifically for athletes. The recommendation for highly active individuals by the World Health Organization is 35% [4], the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare suggests a 5% increase [4], and the Canadian recommendation is an increase of 7 g/d and 9 g/d for females and males, respectively [4]. The increased tolerance of fat in highly active individuals is based on the protective effect of exercise as shown by the increased ratio of HDL cholesterol to LDL cholesterol [32]. Additionally, the recommendation for fat is based on the need to ingest adequate amounts of essential fatty acids (EFA). Individuals that consume a low fat diet or have increased fat oxidation [8,32] are at risk of not getting adequate amounts of EFA.

Carbohydrate Intake:
The percent of calories from carbohydrates decreased as the percent of fat increased in the present study. Previous studies using similar subjects have shown that carbohydrate loading improves endurance performance in glycogen depleted subjects [33,34]. The reduction in the percent of carbohydrates consumed in the present study was offset by the increase in total calories. The level of carbohydrate intakes, even on the high fat diet, was close to the recommended level for glycogen maintenance [34]. This type of dietary manipulation by increasing calories and the percentage of fat appears to supply additional levels of fat while maintaining adequate levels of glycogen.

The fiber intake of the subjects was lower than recommended (25 to 30 g/day), but slightly higher than the mean United States intake of 12 g/day [4], intakes which are similar to those given in other reports [19]. The link between colon cancer and fat is well established, but another link has been made between inactivity and colon cancer [35]. Besides consuming more dietary fiber than most Americans, these subjects are highly active people. There may be no correlation between the risk of increased fat consumption and lower levels of dietary fiber in athletes [36].

Vitamins:
Vitamins that serve as protective antioxidants are important for athletes since the oxidative stress that is associated with athletes may increase their need for vitamins such as A, E and C. Packer [37] demonstrated some beneficial effects of vitamin E in tissue during training. Vitamin E intake on the high fat diet reached levels that several studies recommend for athletes [15,16]. Vitamin C aids in the recycling of the vitamin E radical back to vitamin E, but it does not display the same effects on endurance [16]. Our subjects were well above the RDA, as well as that recommended for reducing post exercise muscle soreness [38]. Fat soluble vitamins are better absorbed when there is sufficient fat intake. While the consumption of vitamin A on the three diets was significantly different, the total absorption of vitamin A might have been decreased on the low fat diet in which the total amount of fat consumed was low. The subjects all exceeded the RDA for vitamin A on all three diets. While there has been no correlation between vitamin A and improved physical performance [15], the antioxidant effects of vitamin A might be a consideration for increasing its intake in athletes [15]. Even though low fat foods are the major sources of most of the B vitamins, the levels of these vitamins were still above the RDA on the higher fat diets.

Minerals:
Mineral intakes by athletes may need to be higher than recommendations for less active individuals, partly because of increased loss in sweat [9]. Runners are the athletes most likely to be deficient in iron for many reasons [12]. Low iron intakes would magnify any of these deficiencies. Iron intakes were lower when subjects went to the medium fat diet, but the median intake was near the RDA for the women and much higher for the men.

Adequate life long calcium intake is important in preventing stress fractures in athletes [8], but the calcium intake for females is usually below the RDA [18,22], as it was for most of the women in this study on the low fat diet. Importantly, our subjects on the medium and high fat diets exceeded the RDA for calcium.

Zinc status of athletes may be inversely related to training [14] and has been reported to affect muscle endurance and muscle strength [39]. The increased calorie consumption that occurred with increasing fat intakes also increased the zinc intake, which may aid in the performance of these athletes. Although our subjects were still below the RDA for zinc intake, they did reach the Canadian RNI on the high fat diet [4].

This study demonstrates that a self-selected low fat diet based on food preferences may not be the most beneficial in terms of energy, essential fatty acids, vitamin E, calcium and zinc intake and that a diet closer to the recommendation of 30% to 35% of the calories from fat may meet more of their requirements. Athletes expend more calories and utilize more vitamins and minerals for biological reactions [29] and for compensation of oxidative stress [16]. Therefore, they may be at a greater risk of vitamin and mineral deficiencies than the average individual on a low fat diet.

	CONCLUSIONS

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In summary, adequate caloric intake and proper nutrition are important for the optimal performance and health of athletes. Athletes need more energy, essential fatty acids, protein, some vitamins and minerals than inactive people; therefore, athletes need to eat more of a high quality diet. We can conclude from our data that on a low fat diet it was not possible for these runners to consume the recommended levels of all the RDAs or the required amount of calories. This was in part due to low caloric and low fat intake as on the medium and high fat diets they met or exceeded the recommendations of vitamins, minerals (except zinc) and energy expenditure. Two other aspects of the wider study have shown that they could do this without compromising their cardiovascular risk factors or their immunological function [31,40].

	ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

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This work was partially supported by a research grant from M&M/Mars, Inc. The authors would like to acknowledge the help of Nadine Fisher, Ph.D., Hans Hoppler, Ph.D., Dick Taylor, Ph.D., Jaya Venkatraman, Ph.D., John Leddy, M.D., Charlotte Baumgardt, M.S., R.D., Juliet Gilbert, Kathryn Gutillo, Brian Jakubowicz, Melanie Rimmer, Jill Rowland, Kerry Sheeley and Mike Washo, R.D.

Received December 1, 1999. Accepted November 1, 1999.

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